Was the wrong medication for the clinical situation and the therapeutic effect caused the condition to worsen. Not Applicable: the nature of the procedure has no direct expected clinical response. An effective procedure that caused an improvement in the patient condition may also have resulted in a procedure complication and the complication should be documented. In the case of worsening condition, documentation of the procedure complications may also be appropriate. Currently there are three versions of the data standard available for documentation and in which data is stored: a. These fields require real data and do not accept Nil (Blank) values, Not Values, or Pertinent Negatives. However, required fields allow Nil (blank) values, Not Values, or Pertinent Negatives to be entered and submitted. Values can be left blank, which can either be an accidental or purposeful omission of data. Value fields can appropriately and purposefully be left blank if there was nothing to enter. There are 11 possible Pertinent Negative values and the available list for each field varies as appropriate to the field. The element numbering structure reflects the dataset and the text group name of the element 5. An example of a value code and name for cardiac chest pain, found under the element "eProtocols. However, the technical structure of the fields has made their practical use limited as all the data is collected as a separate, selfcontained group, rather than as part of the procedures group. However, solutions are currently far from practical, functional, effective, or uniform in how they are being implemented or used across various systems. When reuptake is prevented, a strong antidopaminergic, antiserotonergic response occurs. Consider preexisting conditions, such as, sick sinus syndrome before initiating therapy. Modulates carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism and maintenance of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. Relaxes smooth muscle via dose-dependent dilation of arterial and venous beds to reduce both preload and afterload, and myocardial O2 demand. There is potential for dangerous hypotension, narrow angle glaucoma (controversial: may not be clinically significant). In addition, sodium nitrite can cause serious adverse reactions and death from hypotension and methemoglobin formation. Burn and Burn Fluid Charts Burn Size Chart 1 Source: Used with permission, University of Utah Burn Center 375 Burn Size Chart 2 Source: American Heart Association, Pediatric Advanced Life Support Textbook, 2013 376 Percentage of Total Body Surface Area by Age, Anatomic Structure, and Body Habitus Adult Anatomic Structure Anterior head Posterior head Anterior torso Posterior torso Anterior leg, each Posterior leg, each Anterior arm, each Posterior arm, each Genitalia, perineum Surface Area 4. The guidelines listed above will provide assistance during the estimation of the percentage of total body surface area burned for patients of various ages and body habitus. Neurologic Status Assessment Neurologic status assessment involves establishing a baseline and then trending any change in patient neurologic status. With this in consideration, Glasgow Coma Score may not be more valid than a simpler field approach. The need for evidence-based prehospital patient care protocols was clearly recognized by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies and clearly stated in 2007 in the Future of Emergency Care: Emergency Medical Services at the Crossroads. Footnotes (see following page) have been added to enhance understanding of field triage by persons outside the acute injury care field. Includes pedestrians or bicyclists thrown or run over by a motor vehicle or those with estimated impact 20 mph with a motor vehicle. If the nonburn trauma presents a greater immediate risk, the patient may be stabilized in a trauma center and then transferred to a burn center. Codes to Know A Guide to Ultrasound of the Shoulder, Part 1: Coding and Reimbursement Alan M.
Selection bias: Defined and concealed randomization process with rater and subject blind of group assignment 2. Comparison group bias: Interventions equal between groups and include baseline comparison 4. These criteria are defined in a paper in this series entitled: "Critical Appraisal of Methods in Randomized Controlled Trials for Temporomandibular Disorders". These criteria are defined in the paper entitled: "Critical Appraisal of Methods in Randomized Controlled Trials for Temporomandibular Disorders" in this issue. Level Level I: Essential design criteria for Internal Validity to minimize bias Criteria 1. Secondary measures of headache activity: (headachefree days, peak headache activity, medication use). The application of them has been determined to have adequate inter-rater reliability (intraclass correlation is 0. Selection bias: Defined and concealed randomization process with rater and subject blind of group assignment 3. Comparison group bias: Interventions equal between groups and include baseline comparison 5. Low-level laser therapy in the management of disorders of the maxillofacial region. Short-term effect of two therapeutic methods on myofascial pain and dysfunction of the masticatory system. Isokinetic exercise management of temporomandibular joint clicking in young adults. The use of thermal agents to influence the effectiveness of a low-load prolong stretch. Physical medicine modalities and trigger point injections in the management of temporomandibular disorders and assessing treatment outcome. Ultrasound in treatment of back pain resulting from prolapsed intervertebral disc. Therapeutic temperature distribution produced by ultrasound as modified by dosage and volume of tissue exposed. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation as an adjunct in the management of myofascial pain-dysfunction syndrome. Transcutaneous nerve stimulation in a group of patients with rheumatic disease involving the temporomandibular joint. High-intensity transcutaneous nerve stimulation at the Hoku acupuncture point for relief of muscular headache pain. Response of pain to static magnetic fields in postpolio patients: a double-blind pilot study. Repetitive magnetic stimulation: a novel therapeutic approach for myofascial pain syndrome. Use of alternative therapies: estimates from the 1994 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation National Access to Care Survey. Functional outcomes of low back pain: comparison of four treatment groups in a randomized controlled trial. Craniosacral therapy and myofascial release in entry-level physical therapy curricula. Effects of myofascial release leg pull and sagittal plane isometric contract-relax techniques on passive straight-leg raise angle. Application of Principles of Evidence-Based Medicine to Occlusal Treatment of Temporomandibular Disorders: Are there lessons to be learned? Assessment of Study Quality Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4. Mobilization regimens for the prevention of jaw hypomobility in the radiated patient: a comparison of three techniques. Comparison of laser, dry needling, and placebo laser treatments in myofascial pain syndrome.
Handlers should decide which behaviors are desireable and make a list of behavioral goals. Identify new enrichment ideas by making a list of any enrichment practices, novel ideas, or items currently being used by others. Logistics Discuss the ideas with management to evaluate any safety issue concerning the elephants, staff, or public. Discuss ideas with the maintenance department for ideas on construction of the device. Using an enrichment schedule, plan a week or month of enrichment activities in advance. This will make it easier for the elephant staff and assure that the activity will take place by making it part of the daily routine. Use an enrichment evaluation sheet for each time an activity is presented to the elephant to document whether it encouraged the goal behavior. Create an enrichment notebook that includes all the schedule sheets and evaluations for each individual elephant or the group. The notebook will provide a quick reference as to the activities used and their successfulness. An enrichment sign should be provided outside of the elephant enclosure describing the enrichment practice to the public. This will explain why there may be an unnatural item in the area or help them to find the enrichment activity. Enrichment Options the following are enrichment ideas gathered from zoos all over North America. This list is not complete as the possibilities are endless with a little imagination and initiative. Although the items are not always "natural," they may still stimulate the same behaviors seen in the wild. Food-Related Enrichment the premise behind food-related enrichment is to encourage foraging behavior and stimulate exercise. The elephants must search for or devise ways to retrieve items, simulating food-gathering in the wild. Toys or Manipulative Items Providing objects for the elephants to play with or otherwise manipulate is important to develop motor skills and stimulate the mind. This is particularly effective in large exhibits where the animals tend to stay in one favorite spot. Many scents have been tried with elephants, and the following have elicited the most response. The browse is eaten, the bark is stripped off the logs and consumed, and the other sub- Environmental Enrichment Houston Zoo, Anita Schanberger Elephants appear to enjoy painting, and humans appreciate the final product. Although this assessment tool has yet to be validated, it is felt that it represents an important first step in systematically assessing the impact of enrichment. Description of Enrichment Practice: Observation on initial reaction to enrichment (after 15 minute observation): 1. Yes Yes No No Describe the actions of the elephants upon presentation of the enrichment activity: Were the elephants still using the enrichment after 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No Observations of the enrichment activity made throughout the day: Recommendation for future use: Completed by: Date: 238 Elephant Husbandry Resource Guide Fort Worth Zoo See next page for instructions on how to use this sheet. One behavior should be checked on the left side of the bold line for each elephant in the exhibit. When enrichment is present, the handlers should indicate if any contact or evidence of contact with enrichment item occurs during or seems to have occurred since the last observation period. If the enrichment item appears to have been moved or manipulated in some way since the last observation but the elephants are not in contact with the item at the time of the observation, a check mark should be made in the "indirect evidence of use" column. If enrichment is not present, only the behaviors on the left side of the data sheet should be used. If the behavior is not listed on the data sheet, handlers should check the other box and describe the behavior in the comments column on the right side of the data sheet.
Antibodies to bluetongue virus have been detected in free-ranging African elephants (Karesh et al. Free-ranging African elephants commonly have antibody to the African horsesickness virus and have been implicated in the epidemiology of the disease (Karesh et al. Both Asian and African elephants appear susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease (Howell et al. The most common source of trauma is the result of stepping on objects such as stones, nails, or wires. Conditions of the skin include lacerations, abrasions, and contusions and hyperkeratosis at the junction of the skin and the sole. The types of hoof problems affecting other ungulates may also be seen in elephants and include penetrating injuries, sole cracks, cracks in the nail or cuticle, overgrowth, abscesses, nonspecific An Asian elephant in Sumatra has musculoskeletal disorder. Treatment of cracks in the toenail is complicated by the tremendous weight of the animal. Animals with severe calcium deposiwere successfully resolved by trimming (Schanberger et al. Sikes implicates several environinfected phalanges from a 40-year-old elephant has also mental factors, including human population pressures been described (Gage et al. A variety of organisms resulting in a lack of arboreal food items (possibly causing (E. Some habitat (leading to possible hypervitaminosis D, known to elephants have been euthanized as a result of chronic be associated with calcium deposition in other species) as pododermatitis. Most of these animals received aggressive contributory to the development of arterial disease in wild medical treatment over a period of months or years but African elephants. The role Examination of the hearts and aortas of 415 elephants of mycoplasmas and rheumatoid arthritis as an underlying culled in Uganda and Kenya between 1966 and 1967 etiology of the arthritic problems noted in captive elephants remains unclear. The occurrence of mycoplasma in revealed gross lesions in 298 aortas (72 percent) and 29 coronary arteries (27 percent) (McCullagh and Lewis 1967). Two mycoplasma lesions in elephants were most severe in the aortas and strains isolated from elephants represent a new species, least severe in the coronary arteries. Padding and topical agents have sclerotic plaques covered 8 percent of the total surface area been minimally successful in resolving these lesions. Use of the thoracic aorta and 50 percent of the total surface of of direct-contact, low-level infrared therapy, used to the abdominal aorta. The severity of atherosclerotic lesions enhance healing of similar lesions in humans and horses, does not appear to be corrleated with blood levels of may be beneficial for elephants as well (Gage et al. In another study (Dillman and Carr obtained using a portable equine radiographic unit (Gage 1970), aortic lesions were seen in 36 percent of 207 aortas 1999). Serum electrolytes measured in these and 49 other elephants showed no differences in Cardiovascular Disorders cholesterol between normal elephants and those with aortic lesions. McCullagh (1972) suggested that lesions Arterial Disease observed in elephants are more compatible with a "meArterial disease has been the subject of several field chanical concept" theory in which hemodynamic stresses studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s. Sikes examined such as turbulence and repeated stretching of the arterial the aortas and arteries from 40 elephants from three wall result in endothelial damage, eventually leading to distinct habitats in Kenya and Uganda and observed fibrosis and thickening of the intima. Arteriosclerosis or atherosclerosis were noted postmortem in 6 elephants but were implicated as the cause of death in only one case (Mikota et al. Diseases of Unknown Etiology Floppy Trunk Syndrome Floppy trunk syndrome has been reported only in freeranging African elephants. The first cases occurred in 1989 in the Fothergill Island area of the Matusadona National Park (Kock et al. Floppy trunk syndrome presents as a subtle loss of prehension followed by atrophy of the trunk and ascending paralysis which progresses over a period of months. Neuromuscular deficits are confined to the trunk, and although the elephants are initially able to compensate for difficulties in feeding, prehension eventually becomes more difficult and wasting ensues. As of March 1998, 35 to 40 cases have been identified, 17 biopsies and five postmortems have been performed, and two to three elephants have completely recovered. Biopsies show neuropathy of the peripheral nerves supplying the trunk with axon, myelin loss, and muscle atrophy (Kock 1996).
An assessment of the conservation status of a species should not however be limited to the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on. This means that even a species with high levels of regeneration, both sexually and vegetatively as is the case with many dry forest and woodland species (see Chapter 2), must be evaluated as threatened on the basis of reproductive adults. It is difficult to determine the number of threatened plant species by phytoregion from data that are often presented by country and, in addition, some countries contain vegetation formations that are not dry forest and woodland. Of these, five (39 per cent) of the species are found in the Sudanian zone while two, Hallea stipulosa and Khaya anthotheca, are found in this zone as well as the Zambeziana zone. The Zambeziana zone holds two trees species that are exclusive to this regional centre of endemism and these are Baikiaea plurijuga and Entandrophragma caudatum while Cordeauxia edulis and Pericopsis elata are exclusive to the Somali-Masai zone. This suggests that the majority of threatened tree species are in the Sudanian and Zambezian zones, which also share 25 per cent of flora (White, 1983). Hamilton and Hamilton (2006) place the blame for loss of plant materials on increasing human populations, increased demand for these resources, destruction and modification of habitats, expansion and intensification of agriculture. Poor management of protected areas In the majority of sub-Saharan African countries investment in protected areas and forest reserves is chronically low. As a consequence of this, there is poor infrastructure and inadequate personnel, equipment and law enforcement and research: important components of good and effective management of protected areas. In addition, the history of the establishment of protected areas is dominated by opportunistic acquisitions of land often at the expense of rural people (Siegfried, 1989) who over time have sought to reclaim their rights and often do so through encroachment and counter claims (Palmer, 2001). After the Rio Earth Summit of 1992, there has been an upsurge in the number of new protected areas and these are having negative impacts on the livelihoods of local communities through a loss of rights, exclusion from natural resources and displacement from traditional lands (Wittemeyer et al, 2008). These encroachments have huge implications for the management of these protected areas as well as the status of the biodiversity found in them. Population and land-use pressure the population inhabiting dry forests and woodlands in sub-Saharan Africa was estimated at 320 million people in 2000 (Eva et al, 2006). Given the limited availability of suitable agricultural land, there is increasing pressure to convert remaining dry forests and woodlands to agriculture. Given the difficulties of modelling deforestation and degradation of tropical open woodlands (Grainger, 1999), estimates of woodland cover loss in Africa tend to vary greatly depending on the methodology used to estimate deforestaTable 3. Estimates of woodland loss therefore can only be indicative of the extent of the problem of deforestation in woodland areas. According to Kigomo (2003) the causes of woodland cover degradation and loss in semi-arid Africa are overgrazing, agricultural expansion and overexploitation of forest resources. Mayaux et al (2004) estimated that nearly 15 per cent of the Zambezian woodlands has been converted to agriculture while similar values for the Sudanian and Somali-Masai woodlands are 60 per cent and 80 per cent, respectively. It is therefore not surprising that sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing humaninduced biodiversity decline. The loss of biodiversity results in the loss of ecosystem goods and services and translates into reduced economic opportunities for present and future generations. Climate change Dry forest and woodland vulnerability to climate change refers to the degree to which these vegetation types are susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, its variability and extreme events. Some of the possible impacts of climate change on African dry forests and woodlands have been mentioned in Chapter 2. Temperature also significantly affected seedling mortality in all the five species such that under a warmer climate, mortality was predicted to increase in two of the species and decrease in the other three species. The conclusion was that woodland trees would respond to climate warming in different but predictable ways. The study by McClean et al (2005) revealed shifts in ranges of individual species in African woodlands as a result of climate change. The disappearance of tree species has been particularly noticeable in parkland landscapes where Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa are either disappearing or retreating to more mesic habitats. In addition, the savanna areas of northern Nigeria are reported to be losing plant species as a result of increasing desertification due to inadequate rainfall, excessive drought and sand dune encroachment. Over-reliance on traditional medicinal plants for primary health care by the majority of the sub-Saharan population has contributed to the overexploitation of some other species, such as Walburgia salutaris in Zimbabwe and Albizia brevifolia in Namibia and many others that are now threatened.
Navarra, Leandro di Siviglia: Profilo storico-letterario (Rome, 1987), which prints and translates his Homilia in Laudem Ecclesiae, and J. Berschin, Griechisch-lateinisches e Mittelalter, von Hieronymus zu Nikolaus von Kues (Bern and Munich, 1980), revised and expanded by the author and trans. He was a man educated in every kind of expression, so that in the quality of his speech he was suited to both the ignorant audience and the learned. Indeed, he was famous for his incomparable eloquence, eloquence appropriate to the occasion. Accordingly, I have noted down these thoughts about the works that have come to my notice. He published: Two books of Differences (Differentiae), in which he used subtle distinctions to differentiate the meaning of terms whose use is confused. One book of Introductions (Proemia), in which through brief notes he pointed out what each book of Holy Scripture contains. One book On the Lives and Deaths of the Fathers (De Ortu et Obitu Patrum), in which he noted with thoughtful brevity their deeds and worthiness, their deaths and burials. Two books of Offices (Officia), for his brother Fulgentius, Bishop of Ecija, in which he set out the origin of the Offices and why each Office is performed in the Church of God, with interpretations of his own pen, but not without the authority of our forefathers. Two books of Synonyms (Synonyma), with which, through the intervening exhortation of reason, he encouraged the reader to a consolation of the soul and a hope of receiving forgiveness. One book On the Nature of Things (De Natura Rerum), addressed to King Sisebut, in which he resolved certain obscure matters concerning the elements, relying on his study of both the Doctors of the Church and the philosophers. One book On Numbers (De Numeris), in which he touched in part on the discipline of mathematics, on account of the numbers which are inserted in Sacred Scripture. One book On the Names of the Law and the Gospels (De Nominibus Legis et Evangeliorum), in which he shows what the people who are mentioned signify in a mystical sense. One book On Heresies (De Haeresibus), in which, following the examples of our forefathers, he gathers diverse topics, being as brief as he can. Three books of Sentences (Sententiae), which he ornamented with flowers from the book of Morals by Pope Gregory. One book of Chronicles (Chronicon), from the creation of the world up until his own time, collected with great brevity. Two books Against the Jews (Contra Judaeos), at the request of his sister Florentina, a virgin. One book On Illustrious Men (De Viris Illustribus), to which we are adding this entry. One book On the Origin of the Goths, and also the Kingdom of the Suevi, and the History of the Vandals (De Origine Gothorum et Regno Suevorum et etiam Vandalorum Historia). Two books of Questions (Quaestiones), which the reader may recognize as an abundant anthology of ancient treatises. The Etymologies (Etymologiae), a codex of enormous size, divided by him into topics, not books. Although he left it unfinished, I divided it into twenty (or, "fifteen," in some manuscripts) books, since he wrote the work at my request. Whoever thoughtfully and thoroughly reads through this work, which is suited to philosophy in every respect, will not be ignorant of the knowledge of human and divine matters, and deservedly so. Overflowing with eloquence of various arts with regard to nearly every point of them that ought to be known, it collects them in a summarized form. There are also other minor works by this man, and abundantly ornamented writings in the Church of God. You have laid open the lifetime of our country, the description of the ages, the laws of sacred matters and of priests, learning both domestic and public, the names, kinds, functions and 17 the Byzantine Emperor Mauritius reigned from 582 to 602, and Reccared from 586 to 601. Life and works 9 causes of settlements, regions, places, and all matters both human and divine. In this council he asserted the truth against Gregorius, leader of the aforementioned heresy. Isidore died during the reign of the Emperor Heraclius and of the most Christian King Chintila. They range in date from what is presumably the earliest, the first book of the Differentiae, around 600, to around 625.
In this context, it is crucial to distinguish between positive questions (What value do people place on the preservation of the ecosystem? With respect to the positive analysis of ecosystem values, it is useful to distinguish between the environment as a marketed good, or an input to the production of marketed goods, and the environment as a nonmarketed good of concern to people in its own right. The first situation is certainly easier to deal with and represents, I believe, the stereotype of what economic analysis is about. The economist figures out the market price of alligator handbags, say, and multiplies that by the reduction in the quantity of alligator handbags resulting from the destruction of alligator habitat. Although that certainly is part of economic analysis, it has not been at the cutting edge of research in environmental economics for the past decade or more. Organized markets are one forum in which people reveal their preferences through the choices that they make-but markets are not the only forum, and they are not essential to the enterprise of environmental valuation. Instead, economists have come to rely quite extensively on simulated markets, or their analogs, in which individuals reveal their preferences through interviews or experimental games involving trade-offs between money and environmental outcomes. Moreover, when they do analyze actual markets, economists are interested not in the market prices per se but, rather, in the patterns of selection and the types of preferences that these imply. Both direct and indirect techniques for eliciting or inferring the preferences of individuals have been greatly refined in recent years. Rather than attempting to summarize them, I will mention several potential limitations of general concern. In principle, this is an empirical issue, and the solution depends on two sets of factors-the way in which individuals perceive and care for natural environments (What are the aspects that matter to them? The second pertains to the complex types of preferences involved when one is dealing with uncertain and intertemporal outcomes. There is conflicting empirical evidence on how people approach these issues and the types of decision rules they use. As noted above, we have a variety of axiomatic systems and theories about how uncertainty and time could be factored into decision making but much less empirical information on what people do in practice. Moreover, there is some evidence from psychologists that raises doubts about whether individuals have consistent risk or intertemporal preferences at all. At the very least, there is evidence that preferences depend on the type of choice available. To the extent that this is so, the problems of identifying the appropriate choice and appropriate measurement technique, or of extrapolating preferences revealed by one type of choice to the valuation of another, are indeed challenging. Third, there is the problem of aggregating preferences or values across individuals. Preferences vary among people: some may even dislike biological diversity and prefer concrete parking lots to natural wilderness. In any case, a resource management program is likely to create both winners and losers. Is everyone weighted equally (which, in principle, enshrines the existing income distribution), or do some count more than others? The question cannot be answered by economists alone: it must be resolved by reference to some philosophical or ethical system. Fourth, the sheer difficulty of dealing with futurity in resource management and preservation issues can scarcely be overemphasized. Any economic analysis of the benefits and costs of biodiversity preservation involves predictions. One can attempt to counteract this by choosing sophisticated analytical techniques and decision criteria that recognize the uncertainties and the potential for error, but the feeling of unease cannot be avoided. Lastly, the postulate underlying the entire enterprise of positive analysis (the legitimacy of attempting to establish what value people place on biodiversity) is itself a value judgment and one that can be questioned. Consumer sovereignty, and the notion that people may have consistent and stable preferences, can be challenged. A justification comes from the utilitarian ethical system that mainstream economics embraces.
In Malawi, strong community management practices have likewise been observed, with important species such as P. The same applies to Sclerocarya birrea in much of southern Africa (Leakey et al, 2005). In common lands in Zimbabwe, Campbell (1987) found that wild fruit trees, as non-dominant woody species, can rapidly make up for high demands on their resources through opportunistic regeneration following land clearing, disturbance and selective harvesting by local users. Regular renewal of the incision (two to seven times a day) to stimulate sap flow eventually causes irreversible damage to the palm heart. For the single stemmed species that dominate the western African palm wine trade, such as Raphia hookeri and Borassus aethiopum, this can mean the entire plant dies following just a few days of tapping. They cite ethnobotanical studies from Senegal, Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso, which have shown that tappers have avoided plant mortality by using less damaging techniques such as collecting sap from the inflorescences of female palms, tapping the palm heart by piercing the leaf sheaths or ceasing tapping activities before the apical meristem is completely destroyed. Amongst the Serer ethnic group in Senegal, where destructive harvesting is used, palm populations are maintained through the sowing of seeds. In southern and eastern Africa, the much smaller palms Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata are commonly exploited. Cunningham (1990) notes that these species are nearly always tapped through extreme apical meristem tapping, and that the tapped stem almost always dies. For these species, threats to sustainability may come from changes induced by tapping to plant size and age class distribution. However, increasing commercialization does raise concerns regarding the sustainability of resource harvesting as do competing uses for other products such as fuelwood, fibre, bark or sap. Palm trees are particularly vulnerable because of the multiple use value of many of these species and the high market demand for palm wine, the production of which often involves destructive harvesting (Box 5. The use of insects as human food (entomophagy) dates back to time immemorial and is a custom that is deeply ingrained in the culture of many African ethnic groups (Mbata et al, 2002). Insects form a deliberate part of the diet of most rural, and to a lesser extent, urban dwellers, and are cherished as occasional snacks or delicacies, as well as dietary supplements served as relishes. Insect foods are sourced from dry forests, woodlands and associated grasslands, as well as from cultivated and fallowed crop fields on private, communal and sometimes, even state lands. The abundance of edible insects and the quantities actually harvested vary greatly in relation to the insect species in question and the prevalence of its host plant(s) in a given area. Old women in Zimbabwe harvest soldier termites during the hot dry season for consumption (Wilson, 1990). In order to extract the grubs from the host plants, men cut and split the trunks of palm trees. The legs and wings and, for large specimens, also heads together with attached guts, are removed from grasshoppers, locusts, crickets and katydids before being roasted and eaten as snacks or cooked in water with salt for use as side dishes (van der Waal, 2004). The stinkbug, Encosternum delegorguei in South Africa, is eaten dry as a snack or fried in salt and a little water and consumed as a side dish (Toms et al, 2003). In Zambia, following evisceration, caterpillars are roasted in hot ash prepared from bonfires set in the woodlands, until hairs and spiny body adornments burn off and the caterpillars become hardened and then they are sun-dried. Caterpillar processing often takes place in the forest while collectors reside in temporary camps (Mbata et al, 2002). A groundnut meal may also be added to caterpillar relish in northern Zambia (Chileshe, 2005). The amounts of insect foods used vary depending on factors such as region, time of year, purpose for exploiting insects, economic standing and the food security situation of individual households. More insect foods are used during insect harvesting seasons than at other times of the year. For edible grasshoppers, which are available throughout the year in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, in a good, wet year, a person will consume as much as 19. Generally, poor individuals and households, as well as households that harvest the insect resource for sale, use more insect foods than the more well-off. In Zambia, the first two weeks of the caterpillarharvesting season, which coincides with the start of the hunger period, are used to collect and stock caterpillars for home consumption. The knowledge refers to the traditional knowledge that indigenous people possess on the edible insect resource, which is transmitted from parents to offspring through oral education. The practice part, refers to the practical skills in harvesting, processing and management of the resource, which is learnt hands-on by children. Harvesting techniques for edible insects vary depending on the species being exploited and the substrates from which they are collected. These destructive harvesting techniques have negative impacts on forest biodiversity and can lead to the gradual disappearance of the insects in question, especially those with limited numbers of alternative host plants.
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