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It comprises the loop described by Papez that contributes to conscious encoding of experiences in suitable attentional conditions, which is the first step of memorization. It is involved in explicit cognitive processes and motivation, in relation with memorized experiences. An amygdala circuit that more specifically serves information processing with emotional patterns. The amygdala receives information about internal motivation and the visceral state of the organism but also receives information on the external milieu because of multiple afferents from all the unimodal associative areas. Its interaction with hippocampal formation will determine the motivational significance of the current internal and external state and play a role in the learning of new experiences with emotional coloration. Through its main connections with the prefrontal cortex (medial orbitofrontal), this subsystem computes current information and compares it with remote experience. The result of this comparison and its relevance to the presumed result will control the response by activation or inhibition. Limbic System the limbic system includes a group of midbrain structures particularly involved in emotion, memory, and motivation processes. The limbic system components, especially those located in the medial temporal regions Behavior, Neural Basis of 83 these two circuits share certain pathways and structures but work in synergy. As the amygdala­prefrontal circuit assesses how relevant sensory stimuli are to the organism, the hippocampal­cingulate division participates in episodic encoding, intentional selection, and habituation. They form part of the frontal­subcortical circuits, and dysfunction of limbic systems will share some features with described prefrontal syndromes. Lesions of the amygdala are responsible for Kluver­Bucy syndrome, which in humans is associated with placidity, elimination of previous aggressiveness, and lack of association with implicit visceral or affective information. With the basal ganglia, this limbic system forms a system involved in goal-directed behavior. The hippocampal and amygdala structures are tightly connected to the ventral striatopallidal complex (nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle, and ventral pallidum)-a system thought to play an important role in conditioned behaviors. It is assumed that these basal ganglia are crucial in controlling drive-related action. These stimuli can be generated internally through the hypothalamus or externally through the limbic system and neocortex. The frontal and limbic circuits form closed loops but are also interconnected at the cortical limb or in the basal ganglia (especially the substantia nigra pars reticulata and globus pallidus interna). For instance, motor cortex projections to the substantia nigra relay information to the associative prefrontal cortex about current motor processes. Reciprocally, projections from the associative prefrontal cortex to the globus pallidus interna may activate the closed motor circuit. The associative prefrontal cortex is also informed by the limbic prefrontal cortex, through the substantia nigra, on the global motivational state and will therefore control the execution of motor programs by its direct or indirect projections to the motor cortex. Two circuits originate from the ventral tegmental area and project to the mesial limbic system (nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus) and the entire prefrontal cortex. For example, a reduction in the activity of the mesocortical pathway will result in a paucity of affect and loss of motivation and planning, whereas secondary overactivity of the mesolimbic system will produce disturbances of thought and perceptions (generally delusions and hallucinations). These radically opposing disorders may coexist in schizophrenia, a frequent and disabling psychosis in which dopaminergic dysfunction is thought to be a core biological disturbance. The first system projects to the major part of neocortex and the hippocampus, and it plays a role in the modulation of brain excitability, learning, and memory. Serotonin pathways, arising from the raphe nuclei in the brainstem, project to the entire cortex and are primarily involved in the regulation of the sleep­wake cycle. They are also important in mood regulation and, to some extent, in affective behaviors because they reduce aggressive and impulsive tendencies. Clinical Syndromes Focal lesions, in particular cortical or subcortical areas, may induce behavioral or thought disorders that depend on the degree of specialization of the affected zone, the extension and rapidity of the lesion, and compensation by other linked structures. Behavioral symptoms can also occur in dysfunctions not associated with detectable anatomical lesions, such as in psychiatric disorders. Dopamine projections enhance frontal cortical activity, mainly through three distinct pathways. One pathway arises from the substantia nigra pars compacta, innervating the striatum and contributing to thalamocortical activation. This nigrostriatal system is involved in movement Conclusion In summary, the links between brain and behavior derive from a hierarchical organization in which some areas are important for specialized functions, and their lesions are responsible for circumscribed neurological disorders.

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Many extravasations cause very little damage, but you may need to be treated with an antidote and apply compresses to the area for a few days (Pйrez Fidalgo et al. Your doctor or nurse will be able to help you to prevent or manage these side effects Troublesome dyspnoea can be treated with drugs called opioids or benzodiazepines, and in some cases, steroids are used (Kloke and Cherny, 2015) · Effects on the gastrointestinal system (constipation, nausea, · Let your doctor or nurse know if you experience a persistent cough. Some hospitals can provide cold caps to reduce hair loss Important side effects associated with individual chemotherapy drugs used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Bisphosphonates can also occasionally lead to osteonecrosis (death of bone tissues) in the jaw. Although this is very rare, it is important that you clean your teeth regularly and carefully and report any oral problems to your doctor and dentist. Denosumab therapy can also potentially lead to osteonecrosis of the jaw, as well as low calcium levels and skin infections. It is very important that you inform your doctor or nurse well in advance of any planned dental treatments, as bisphosphonates and denosumab therapy will have to be temporarily stopped. Follow-up appointments You will be able to discuss any concerns you have at your follow-up appointments Whether you have had curative treatment or are receiving long-term hormone therapy, your doctor will arrange follow-up appointments. Patients who are on long-term hormone therapy may have scans to check for osteoporosis ­ your doctor will discuss this with you. Your doctor will let you know how often you need to return for further follow-up appointments, but a typical follow-up schedule after curative treatment would involve check-ups every 6 months in the first 2 years after treatment, then every 12 months after that. Looking after your health After you have had treatment for prostate cancer, you may feel very tired and emotional. Give your body time to recover and make sure you get enough rest, but there is no reason to limit activities if you are feeling well. Complementary therapies, such as aromatherapy, may help you relax and cope better with side effects. It is important to start slowly, with gentle walking, and build up as you start to feel better. Vitamin D, which the body needs to absorb calcium, is very important for men having hormone therapy because of the risk of osteoporosis. We mainly get vitamin D from sunlight and some foods, but your doctor may also recommend that you take a daily supplement. A healthy, active lifestyle will help you to recover physically and mentally Regular exercise is an important part of a healthy lifestyle, helping you to keep physically fit and avoid weight gain. This is particularly important for men with prostate cancer, as studies have shown that an exercise training programme can reduce the side effects of long-term androgen deprivation therapy and improve quality of life (Bourke et al. It is very important that you listen carefully to the recommendations of your doctor or nurse, and talk to them about any difficulties you have with exercise. Long-term effects After completing treatment for prostate cancer, you may experience some long-term side effects, depending on the treatment you have received. Long-term side effects of surgery for prostate cancer may follow on from the short-term effects, including permanent erection problems and urinary incontinence. The long-term effects of hormone therapy for prostate cancer can include weight gain, loss of stamina, mood swings, osteoporosis and heart problems. Radiotherapy for prostate cancer may cause irritation of the rectum (proctitis) or the bladder (cystitis), leading to more frequent toilet visits and possibly bleeding (Dearnaley et al. There may also be an increase in erection problems from 1­2 years after radiotherapy treatment. There is a theoretical possibility that radiotherapy could cause cancers in other organs around the treatment area, however this has not been proven in men treated for prostate cancer. The long-term effects of prostate cancer treatment on your sex life can be difficult to come to terms with. A penile rehabilitation programme can provide ways to adapt to the changes in your sexual function, and counsellors or therapists can help with anxiety about your sex life ­ talk to your doctor or nurse to find out what help is available in your area. The long-term effects of prostate cancer and its treatment can be managed so it is important that you tell your doctor or nurse about any persistent or new symptoms. Your doctor or nurse will also work with you to develop a personalised survivorship care plan. They can be local, national or international, and they work to ensure patients receive appropriate and timely care and education.

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Verbs and adjectives begin to appear in greater numbers between 100 and 400 words. Grammatical words (such as articles, pronouns, prepositions, and auxiliaries) increase in frequency at approximately 400 words. When their productive vocabulary reaches 50­200 words, they begin combining words into short phrases. These relations are preserved in internationally adopted preschoolers, suggesting that the correlation is not a side effect of global maturational or cognitive changes. In bilingual children, these relations hold within a language but not between languages, suggesting that lexical development facilitates grammatical development or vice versa. Most people who have thought about the problem long enough have come up with essentially the same solution: Word learning is a form of induction. As the learner observes new instances of the word, hypotheses are eliminated or strengthened, allowing him or her to close in on the correct meaning. Although this mechanism clearly plays a role in word learning, it cannot be the entire story. First, even very young children can learn some words after hearing them used in just one context. Second, many words, particularly verbs and other relational terms, are often used in the absence of the event being labeled. Finally, the account of word learning given previously is subject to the mid-century critiques of empiricism voiced by philosophers such as W. Learning simply cannot be unconstrained induction because any finite set of observations is consistent with an infinite set of hypotheses. Thus, a full account of lexical development requires more than merely stating that word learning is induction. In the past 25 years, developmental psycholinguists have begun to flesh out this story by identifying three ways in which children and adults can tame the induction problem and learn the meanings of words. Constraints and Biases on Hypothesized Meanings the first way to tame induction is by limiting the range of meanings that are considered as possible hypotheses. However, such constraints cannot explain how the learner rules out more plausible alternatives such as white, fluffy, hopping, tail, animal, or Flopsie. All these hypotheses are plausible ones, meanings which the learner could eventually link to some other phonological form. Children, however, are biased learners who privilege some of these hypotheses over others. The nature of these biases has been explored with an experimental paradigm called the word extension task. Through tasks such as this one, researchers have discovered that children (and adults) have a strong bias to assume that a new word refers to a whole object rather than one of its parts, its properties, or the relations that it is involved in. When children have mapped a word to an object, they will extend it to other objects of the same kind rather than to other objects that are involved in the same event. In the case of novel artifacts, they typically extend the word to objects of the same shape rather than to objects of the same material or same color. However, when a word is applied to a novel animal, children are more conservative, preferring referents that have the same color or texture and the same shape. One additional constraint, often called mutual exclusivity, may help learners overcome this bias. Young children are reluctant to map a second label to an object for which they already have a label. Are these biases unique to word learning or do they reflect more general properties of cognition? Perhaps the bias to link words to whole objects reflects the centrality of objects in early cognition rather than any preconceptions about the nature of words. Similarly, mutual exclusivity in word learning could result from a more general principle of communication which leads learners to assume that speakers will use known forms of reference whenever possible. The second issue is whether these biases are available at the onset of word learning.

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The destruction leads to multiple white-matter lesions throughout the brain stem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. As a consequence, a variety of symptoms can be observed ranging from motor and sensory disturbances to visual symptoms and cognitive impairments (Smith and McDonald, 1999). On a perceptual level, the most frequently observed characteristics of voice and speech were changes in loudness control, voice quality, articulation, emphasis, and pitch control (Darley et al. However, only a few attempts have been made to quantify the observed speech changes using systematic measurements such as acoustic analysis. Under these circumstances a number of rating items from which the clinical impressions are made are influenced by linguistic and paralinguistic aspects of the interview process. Atypical communication can have an effect on clinical assessment, as it may influence rater scoring on a number of items from subjective behavioral rating scales. Although these rating scales are invaluable in their ability to help clinicians assess symptomatology, the addition of objective and quantifiable measures of disease severity and therapeutic treatment response are desirable and possible through speech and voice acoustic measurement. In the most basic terms, physical quantitative measurements of communication behavior, using aspects of frequency, intensity, and time, support and extend the clinical impressions of atypical communication used clinically (Alpert, 1996). This adds clinical value by providing repeatable quantification of observed symptomatology. The literature surrounding acoustic investigations in persons with schizophrenia has revealed a number Acoustic Speech Characteristics in Psychiatric Diseases Methods of acoustic quantification have also been applied to the speaking behaviors of persons with psychiatric disorders, most notably depression and schizophrenia. This avenue of research makes inherent sense, as much depressive and schizophrenic symptomatology is assessed clinically using subjective rating scales designed to elicit Speech Impairments in Neurodegenerative Diseases/Psychiatric Illnesses 481 of consistent themes. In addition, acoustic measures have shown great promise in identifying treatment response by demonstrating a larger treatment effect than those seen with traditional rating scales (Alpert, 1996). It has also been demonstrated that specific measures of acoustic inflection are sensitive enough to differentiate between antipsychotic compounds (Olanzapine vs. Haloperidol), whereas rating scales were not able to detect this difference (Alpert M, Smith R C, Pouget E R, Allan E, and Sisson C, unpublished data). Bidirectional changes in the speech acoustic characteristics between drug conditions have also led researchers to the conclusion that different mechanisms of drug action that may be at work, though rating scales were not able to make this distinction (Alpert et al. Acoustic measures were able to separate the different drug groups at outcome while the rating scales failed to show a difference. Speech pause behavior in a simple counting and picture description task have indicated that average pause length was indicating of motor retardation, whereas global measures of pause were indicative of the increased cognitive linguistic demands of the picture description task. The analyses of longitudinal within-subject change data from this study are still ongoing. Major Depression the relationship between subjective estimates of the severity of major depression and observed qualitative or quantitative changes in speech production has been documented in a number of investigations. The former acoustic measure relates to the muscular and respiratory effort exerted to control phonatory intensity and rate, whereas the latter measure relates to motor timing and the execution of speech movements. Longitudinal design studies by Ellgring and Scherer (1996) and Stassen (1998) have demonstrated similar results, using measures of speech rate, pause duration, and minimum fundamental frequency. Regardless of the specific pharmacologic mechanisms of action of the antidepressant medications used in these studies, several speech acoustical measures consistently track with subtle changes in symptom severity. Moreover, these measures seem to be sensitive to early symptomatic improvement, as well as to the degree of response to drug intervention (Stassen et al. Previous literature supports the conclusion that two general aspects of speech and voice, specifically, motor timing and fundamental frequency, are closely related to mood states as measured by both subject self-report and clinician-administered rating scales (Stassen et al. The Clinical Utility and Application of Speech and Voice Acoustical Analyses Acoustic correlates of neurological and psychiatric disorders have a realistic potential to provide complementary, sensitive methods for the early detection of the onset, progression, and severity of several disease states, as well as providing a means to objectively track symptomatic changes induced by therapeutic intervention. On the contrary, a speech behavioral assessment may provide a rapid, nonintrusive, inexpensive, and relatively effort-free way to obtain objective data regarding disease progression and treatment response. It is noninvasive by nature, and in carefully controlled circumstances, it can provide a large amount of meaningful data. In addition, because altered communication ability is both bothersome and frustrating for so many patients who suffer from the diseases described above, the measurement of an improvement in speech quality is both desirable and encouraging for patients and families alike. Despite the promising potential applications of this technology, the available literature on this subject remains equivocal and fraught with contradictory results. This variability in published results may actually reflect the high sensitivity of the measurements, the complexity of the speech production system, and the intersubject as well as intrasubject variability inherent in this type of research. Certain normative profiles have been recently provided in an article by Kent and colleagues (2003) and may help with enhancing the clinical utility of the acoustic analyses of voice disorders. Once the normative rules are applied in experiments across different laboratories, what today is perceived as conflicting results may in the future yield information about different aspects of the same disease.

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Ultrasound with Doppler flow imaging should generally be performed in all cases of suspected aortic thrombosis; if signs of thrombosis are mild and resolve promptly after removal of the arterial catheter, an ultrasound may not be necessary. Ultrasound is diagnostic in most cases, although a significant false-negative rate has been documented. If an ultrasound is negative or inconclusive, and major arterial thrombosis is suspected, a radiographic contrast study can be performed via the arterial catheter. Consider placing a peripheral arterial line rather than an umbilical arterial line in infants weighing 1,500 g. For large thrombi that are nonocclusive to blood flow (as demonstrated by ultrasound or contrast study) and that are not accompanied by signs of significant clinical compromise, the arterial catheter should be removed and anticoagulation with heparin considered. If catheter is still present and patent, consider local thrombolytic therapy through the catheter (see V. If catheter has already been removed or is obstructed, consider systemic thrombolytic therapy. Surgical thrombectomy is generally not indicated, since the mortality and morbidity are considered to exceed that of current medical management. Some recent experience suggests thrombectomy and subsequent vascular reconstruction may have utility in significant peripheral arterial thrombosis, although this experience is limited. Congenital occlusions of large peripheral arteries are seen, although rare, and can present with symptoms ranging from a poorly perfused, pulseless extremity to a black, necrotic limb, depending on duration and timing of occlusion. Common symptoms include decreased perfusion, decreased pulses, pallor, and embolic phenomena that may manifest as skin lesions or petechiae. Peripheral arterial catheters, including radial, posterior tibial, and dorsalis pedis catheters, are rarely associated with significant thrombosis. Poor perfusion to the distal extremity is frequently seen, and usually resolves with prompt removal of the arterial line. Treatment of significant thrombosis or persistently compromised extremity perfusion associated with a peripheral catheter should consist of heparin anticoagulation and consideration of systemic thrombolysis for extensive lesions. Removal of the catheter should be considered but sometimes it is left in for thrombolysis. A significant proportion of cases appear to result from in utero thrombus formation. There is an increased incidence among infants of diabetic mothers, and males are more often affected than females. Other associated conditions and risk factors include perinatal asphyxia, hypotension, polycythemia, increased blood viscosity, and cyanotic congenital heart disease. Presenting symptoms in the neonatal period include flank mass, hematuria, proteinuria, thrombocytopenia, and renal dysfunction. Coagulation studies may be prolonged, and fibrin degradation products are usually increased. Complications can include adrenal hemorrhage and extension of the thrombus into the inferior vena cava. Diagnosis is made by ultrasound; reversal of portal flow is an indication of severity. Thrombosis of the sinovenous system of the brain is an important cause of neonatal cerebral infarction. The superior sagittal sinus, transverse sinuses, and the straight sinus are most commonly affected. The majority of cases of neonatal sinovenous thrombosis are associated with maternal conditions (including preeclampsia, diabetes, and chorioamnionitis) and/or acute systemic illness in the neonate. Inherited thrombophilias have been reported in 15% to 20% of neonates with sinovenous thrombosis. If significant hemorrhage is present, anticoagulation should be reserved for cases in which thrombus is noted to propagate. Ultrasound with Doppler flow analysis is the most commonly used diagnostic modality. Advantages include relative ease of performance, noninvasiveness, and ability to perform sequential scans to assess progression of thrombosis or response to treatment. Sensitivity of ultrasound may be somewhat limited: several recent studies suggest that significant venous and arterial thrombi may be missed by ultrasonography.

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In fact, left hemisphere stimulation interfered with performance more consistently than right hemisphere stimulation, which only affected the subset of patients with the strongest rightward asymmetries. The reason for these asymmetries remains unclear, but one factor likely to play a role is premorbid language organization (Knecht et al. Another complicating finding is that in some cases, right hemisphere stimulation interfered with performance (Thiel et al. There are, of course, significant differences between the studies including the types of patients. Nonetheless, the findings support the idea that one cannot draw a simple conclusion regarding right hemisphere involvement in recovery. Understanding these differences poses a major challenge for cognitive neuroscience and may require adopting more sophisticated models of recovery that move beyond the simple notions of ``homologous transfer of function' and ``necessary and sufficient' brain regions. A critical test of this relationship will be to determine whether this functional link in some way aids speech perception or comprehension. In short, the field seems poised to expand enormously in virtually all areas of language research, building on the early successes and developing novel methods capable of answering an even wider range of questions. Buccino, G, Riggio, L, Melli, G, Binkofski, F, Gallese, V, and Rizzolatti, G (2005). Semantic processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: A combined functional magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Specific and nonspecific effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on picture-word verification. Dissociating linguistic processes in the left inferior frontal cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Degree of language lateralization determines susceptibility to unilateral brain lesions. Without this explanation, interpretation of such results will remain speculative and controversial. Role of the contralateral inferior frontal gyrus in recovery of language function in poststroke aphasia: A combined repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and positron emission tomography study. Induction of speech arrest and counting errors with rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation. Transcranial magnetic stimulation during positron emission tomography: A new method for studying connectivity of the human cerebral cortex. Further details of many of the studies reviewed here are provided with a specific focus on studies that have extended our understanding of either the cognitive or the neural basis of language. Studies in cognition: the problems solved and created by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Transcranial magnetic stimulation, causal structurefunction mapping and networks of functional relevance. Typical spells last minutes to hours, although episodes that last for many hours have been described. They ask repetitive questions, reflecting their inability to remember what has been told to them and what they have seen and experienced. Some patients appear unsettled and worried, suggesting that they have at least limited awareness that there is something wrong. However, they rarely possess a complete awareness of the fact that they are unable to remember. Symptoms and signs that make epilepsy more likely include automatisms, auras, repeated episodes, and abnormalities in the medial temporal lobes detected by electroencephalography or neuroimaging. Similarly, subtle brain trauma will precipitate transient episodes of amnesia, and this potential cause needs to be explored in the history. The posterior cerebral arteries both send a small branch to the medial temporal lobe and permanent amnestic syndromes can occur with infarction of the territory of these vessels. However, the vast majority of patients in whom an evaluation for cerebrovascular risk factors is sought show no abnormalities in the posterior circulation, suggesting that transient ischemic attacks due to atherosclerosis or cardiac emboli are not causal. Finally, with migraine aura there is a spreading wave of cortical hypometabolism that begins in the occipital cortex and spreads rostally. This stereotyped metabolic change is called the wave of Leao and is present with classic migraines. This hypometabolism accounts for the visual auras that typify migraine and classically precede the migraine headache. Importantly, research on this condition should facilitate a better understanding of the anatomical structures involved with memory.

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Lastly, supramodal association cortex (Brodmann areas 8, 9, 45, 46, and possibly 47 within the prefrontal cortex) may constitute an evolutionarily highest area of the brain. He believes that supramodal tissue provides executive control over other intellectual functions. Conclusions For more that 150 years there has been intense study of how brain action translates into intelligence; there was also parallel interest in practical measures of intelligence. Intelligence is now known to be the product of coordinated activity of connected neuron populations. It reflects the ability to combine and link sensations, memory, and thoughts, to discern patterns, and to anticipate outcome, as manifested by problem solving, creativity, insight, and the capacity to analyze. See also: Behavior, Neural Basis of; Cognitive Impairment; Language and Discourse; Mental Retardation; Mental Status Testing. Introduction A prominent characteristic of human brains is division of the cerebral cortex into left and right hemispheres, each constituting a somewhat separate information processing system with its own abilities, propensities and biases. For example, language disorders are far more frequent and more serious after damage to certain areas of the left hemisphere than after damage to corresponding areas of the right hemisphere. In particular, left-hemisphere dominance for such things as speaking, reading words, using grammar and understanding word meaning has been established for some time. Despite this general picture of left-hemisphere superiority for language, there is also evidence of contributions from the right hemisphere. For example, functional neuroimaging studies typically show activation in many areas of both hemispheres as individuals perform a variety of language tasks. Indeed, when ``language' is viewed more broadly for the purpose of communication, aspects of left-hemisphere dominance may even be complemented by right-hemisphere dominance for such things as intonation, emotional tone and building coherent meaning across sentences. Remarkably, the left and right hemispheres typically coordinate their various activities without effort, leading to a sense of unity in language processing and other domains. The present chapter outlines how this coordination takes place and considers more generally the variety of interhemispheric interactions in our lateralized brain. The chapter begins with a brief overview of the nature of functional hemispheric asymmetry, with special Interhemispheric Interaction in the Lateralized Brain 249 emphasis on processes related to language. This is followed by a discussion of the advantages of having a lateralized brain and of the special challenges that laterality creates for interhemispheric interaction. Against this backdrop, I then review mechanisms of interhemispheric interaction, including discussion of the costs and benefits of distributing processing across both hemispheres as tasks become more or less demanding. Though there is a good deal of consistency from person to person, there is also sufficient individual variation in the efficiency of interhemispheric interaction to have important consequences for language and other activities. Thus, the chapter ends by considering several dimensions of individual variation and looking toward future issues related to interhemispheric interaction. Functional Hemispheric Asymmetry Hemispheric asymmetry or laterality is ubiquitous across information processing domains and across contemporary species. For example, within humans, functional hemispheric asymmetries are found in such varied domains as motor control, perception, memory, emotion and language. During the last 30 years, laterality studies have demonstrated that functional asymmetries are also ubiquitous across other species, with some of those asymmetries being similar to those found in humans. In fact, it has been hypothesized that all contemporary vertebrate groups have inherited a basic pattern of laterality from a common chordate ancestor. In order to understand issues related to interhemispheric interaction, it is useful to consider certain general properties of contemporary hemispheric asymmetry. In addition to being ubiquitous across information processing domains, most hemispheric asymmetries in humans and other species are subtle rather than being all or none. That is, both sides of the brain typically have at least some competence to perform a task or to utilize a specific process, though one side or the other may be superior, preferred or dominant in some other measurable way. For example, for many people the right hand is better at a variety of fine-grained motor activities, but the left hand is not completely without competence for those same activities. In the visual domain, the left hemisphere is superior for processing small local details and the right hemisphere is superior for processing global configuration, but each hemisphere can handle both local and global information to a reasonable extent (see Figure 1). One exception to this property of subtlety may be overt speech, which is produced exclusively by the left hemisphere in most people.

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Historical Perspective Reszo Balint (1874­1929), a Hungarian physician, is best known for a description of the components of a syndrome that bears his name. In 1909, he reported a man with three related but distinct visuospatial abnormalities that were individually designated as a spatial disorder of attention (simultanagnosia), optic ataxia, and psychic paralysis of gaze (ocular apraxia). At autopsy the man had multiple brain lesions, including bilateral nearly symmetrical softening of the posterior parietal, upper temporal, and occipital lobes. These lesions likely resulted from strokes because the patient also had severe atherosclerotic disease of the cerebral circulation. An autopsy was performed on two of these patients and each had bilateral lesions involving the parieto-occipital area. This is demonstrated by having the patient fixate on one object and then introducing a second object in another part of the visual field and asking the patient to direct his or her gaze toward the second object. Patients may have other eye movement abnormalities, such as difficulty in maintaining visual fixation and poor tracking eye movements. In fact, eye movements that are not visually dependent are intact so that the patient can direct his or her gaze to a part of his or her body or to sounds. Optic Ataxia Optic ataxia is an impairment of pointing toward or reaching for objects. This defect can be demonstrated by asking the patient to touch with his or her fingertip a small object that he or she has visually fixated on. The second patient was a 55-year-old woman evaluated for 5 years of progressively distorted vision. For example, she was unable to see two cars at an intersection and had almost stepped from a curb into an approaching car but her husband pulled her to safety. She also had difficulty performing manual tasks under visual guidance, such as reaching for utensils. On examination, when she was shown a picture of a man jogging next to an elephant, she said that she saw a man jogging outside but did not describe the elephant. When asked whether she saw an animal, she said that she saw only a blur of colors. Bilateral lesions restricted to these areas are quite rare, and patients often have confounding visual, sensory (such as hemineglect), and language impairments. Patients have been reported to complain that objects seem to appear and disappear spontaneously. One patient reported watching a television show when, to her surprise, a character involved in a heated argument suddenly went flying across the room from a punch thrown by a character not seen. The first patient was a 70-year-old woman who was admitted to the hospital because of severe headaches and transient left side weakness. During her hospital stay, she began complaining of difficulty seeing, which she could not describe more in depth. Examination showed that she had normal visual acuity, visual fields, and a mild simultanagnosia, ocular apraxia, and optic ataxia. Behavior, Neural Basis of 79 impaired in a world that requires simultaneous synthesis of both entire visual scenes and individual components. Disorders of ``simultaneous perception' in a case of bilateral occipito-parietal brain injury. Report of four cases with watershed parieto-occipital lesions from vertebrobasilar ischemia or systemic hypotension. Most patients have had brain injuries to the parieto-occipital area of both cerebral hemispheres. Patients with these abnormalities can essentially attend to only one visual stimulus at a time, which may leave them profoundly Behavior, Neural Basis of M. In its broader interpretation, this term includes functions as diverse as motor activity, language, socially oriented actions, and affectivity expression. Some behaviors are exhibited only in specific situations in reaction to a type of stimulus. A behavioral pathology will reflect cognitive failure, abnormal personality traits, and/or a neurobiological dysfunction.

References:

  • https://pandasnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Padmanabhan_et_al-2019-Journal_of_Clinical_Apheresis-GUIDELINES-2019-highlighted.pdf
  • https://rules.house.gov/sites/democrats.rules.house.gov/files/BILLS-116HR133SA-RCP-116-68.pdf
  • https://documents.cap.org/protocols/cp-breast-18biomarker-1201.pdf